Editing Canada

'''Canada''' is a country in [[North America]].
[[File:Political_map_of_Canada.png|thumb|right|Map of Canada showing provinces]]

Canada is second only to [[Russia]] in geographic area. Canada has by far the longest coastline of any country, 265,523 km or 16.2% of all the World's coastlines.  Canada consists of [[Provinces and territories of Canada|ten provinces and three territories]]. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east to the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the west and northward into the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Canada's common border with the [[United States]] to the south and northwest is the longest in the world. Despite its large area, its population is not very high, and its population density is amongst the lowest in the world. This is largely because much of its area is in the [[Arctic]] and very sparsely populated.

The land that is now Canada has been inhabited for millenia by American Indians descended from tribes that crossed the land bridge from Asia. It was explored by Europeans beginning with the Vikings under Leif Ericson and later by Basque fisherman seeking cod.  

Beginning in the late 15th century, [[Great Britain|British]] and [[France|French]] expeditions explored and settled along the Atlantic coast and inland along the St. Lawrence River.  Following the conquest of Quebec in 1763, during the [[French and Indian War]], France ceded nearly all of [[New France|its colonies in North America]].  French settlers in Acadia were deported to Louisiana, while those in Quebec remained.

In 1867, with the union of three [[British North America]]n colonies through [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]], Canada was formed as a [[federalism|federal]] [[dominion]] of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the [[United Kingdom]]. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] and culminated in the [[Canada Act 1982]], which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the [[British parliament]].

Canada is a federal state that is governed as a [[parliamentary democracy]] and a [[constitutional monarchy]] with Queen [[Elizabeth II]] as its [[head of state]]. It is a [[Official bilingualism in Canada|bilingual]] nation with both [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]] as official languages at the federal level. One of the world's most highly [[developed countries]], Canada has a diversified economy that is reliant upon its abundant natural resources and upon trade – particularly with the United States, with which Canada has had a friendly and cooperative relationship. It is a member of the [[G7]], [[G8]], [[G20]], [[NATO]], [[OECD]], [[WTO]], [[Commonwealth of Nations]], [[Francophonie]], [[Organisation of American States|OAS]], [[APEC]], and [[UN]]. With the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|eighth-highest]] [[Human Development Index]] globally, it has one of the highest [[standards of living]] in the world.

==Etymology==<!--linked-->
The name ''Canada'' comes from the [[Iroquois]] word, ''kanata'', meaning "village" or "settlement".<ref>{{cite web|title=Origin of the Name, Canada|url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/o5-eng.cfm|publisher=Canadian Heritage|year=2008|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day [[Quebec City]] region used the word to direct French explorer [[Jacques Cartier]] to the village of [[Stadacona]].<ref name="maura"/> Cartier later used the word ''Canada'' to refer not only to that particular village, but also the entire area subject to [[Donnacona]] (the chief at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this region as ''Canada''.<ref name="maura">{{cite journal|last=Maura|first=Juan Francisco|year=2009|title=Nuevas aportaciones al estudio de la toponimia ibérica en la América Septentrional en el siglo XVI|journal=Bulletin of Spanish Studies|volume=86|issue=5|pages=577–603|doi=10.1080/14753820902969345}}</ref>

In the 17th and early 18th century, ''Canada'' referred to the part of [[New France]] that lay along the [[Saint Lawrence River]] and the northern shores of the [[Great Lakes]]. The area was later split into two British colonies, [[Upper Canada]] and [[Lower Canada]]. They were re-unified as the [[Province of Canada]] in 1841.<ref>{{cite book
|title = Naming Canada: Stories of Canadian Place Names
|edition = 2nd
|first = Alan | last = Rayburn
|publisher = University of Toronto Press
|year = 2001
|isbn = 0802082939
|pages = 1–22}}
</ref>
Upon [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]] in 1867, the name ''Canada'' was adopted as the legal name for the new country, and ''Dominion'' (a term from [[Psalm]] 72:8) was conferred as the country's title.<ref>{{cite book|last=O'Toole|first=Roger|title=Holy nations and global identities : civil religion, nationalism, and globalisation|year=2009|publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004178281|editor=Hvithamar, Annika; Warburg, Margit; Jacobsen, Brian Arly|page=137|chapter=Dominion of the Gods: Religious continuity and change in a Canadian context}}</ref> As Canada asserted its political autonomy from the United Kingdom, the federal government increasingly used simply ''Canada'' on state documents and treaties, a change that was reflected in the renaming of the national holiday from [[Dominion Day]] to [[Canada Day]] in 1982.<ref name="buckner">{{cite book|title=Canada and the British Empire|editor= Buckner, Philip|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|pages=37–40, 56–59, 114, 124–125|isbn=019927164X}}</ref>

==History==
===Aboriginal peoples===
[[Archaeology of the Americas|Archaeological]] and [[Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|genetic]] studies support a human presence in the northern [[Yukon]] from 26,500 years ago, and in southern [[Ontario]] from 9,500 years ago.<ref>{{cite web|year=2003 |url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/tcga/tcgapdf/Bortolini-AJHG-03-YAmer.pdf |title=Y-Chromosome Evidence for Differing Ancient Demographic Histories in the Americas|format=PDF|publisher=University College London 73:524–539|doi=10.1086/377588|accessdate=2011-05-23}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite journal| last=Cinq-Mars| first=J| year=2001| title=On the significance of modified mammoth bones from eastern Beringia| journal=The World of Elephants&nbsp;– International Congress, Rome| url=http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.palanth.com/forum/upload_download/articles/cinqmars_elefanti_01.pdf|format=PDF| accessdate=2011-05-23}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite web| last=Wright|first=JV| publisher=Canadian Museum of Civilization| url=http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/archeo/hnpc/npvol04e.shtml| title=A History of the Native People of Canada: Early and Middle Archaic Complexes| date=September 27, 2009| accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
[[Old Crow Flats]] and [[Bluefish Caves]] are two of the earliest archaeological sites of human ([[Paleo-Indians]]) habitation in Canada.<ref>{{cite web
 | last = Griebel
 | first = Ron
 | title = The Bluefish Caves
 | publisher = Minnesota State University
 | url = http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/northamerica/bluefishcaves.html
 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080624012628/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/northamerica/bluefishcaves.html
 | archivedate = 2008-06-24
 | accessdate =2011-05-23 }}
</ref><ref>
{{cite web
 | title=Beringia: humans were here
 | work=Montreal Gazette
 | date=May 17, 2008
 | url=http://www.canada.com/montrealgazette/news/saturdayextra/story.html?id=2a31375e-e834-407d-b8db-2a0010ad4acf&p=2
 | accessdate=2009-09-18 }}
</ref><ref>{{cite web| last=Cinq-Mars| first=Jacques| title=Significance of the Bluefish Caves in Beringian Prehistory| publisher=Canadian Museum of Civilization| year=2001| page=2| url=http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/explore/resources-for-scholars/essays/archaeology/jacques-cinq-mars/significance-of-the-bluefish-caves-in-beringian-prehistory2| accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal societies included permanent settlements,
agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hayes|first=Derek|title=Canada : an illustrated history.|year=2008|publisher=Douglas & Mcintyre|isbn=9781553652595|pages=7, 13}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=quM1xyFyfhQC&pg=PA170|title=Indigenous difference and the Constitution of Canada
|first= Patrick
|last=Macklem
|year=2001
|publisher=University of Toronto Press
|page=170
|isbn=0802041957}}</ref> Some of these cultures had faded by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and have been discovered through archaeological investigations.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sonneborn, Liz|title=Chronology of American Indian History|date=January 2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=9780816067701|pages=2–12}}</ref>

The [[Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|aboriginal population]] is estimated to have been between 200,000<ref name="dying"/> and two million in the late 15th century,<ref name=Steckel>{{cite book|last=Thornton|first=Russell|title=A population history of North America|editor=Haines, Michael R; Steckel, Richard Hall|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2000|pages=13, 380|chapter=Population history of Native North Americans|isbn=0521496667|quote=My 7+ million estimate for the area north of present-day Mexico includes...somewhat more than 2 million for present-day Canada, Alaska, and Greenland combined.}}</ref> with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Health.<ref>{{cite book|title=Handbook of North American Indians: Indians in contemporary society|first= Garrick Alan |last=Bailey |year=2008|publisher= Government Printing Office|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Z1IwUbZqjTUC&pg=PA285|page=285|isbn=0160803888}}
</ref> Repeated outbreaks of European [[infectious disease]]s such as [[influenza]], [[measles]], and [[smallpox]] (to which they had no natural immunity), combined with other effects of European contact, resulted in a forty to eighty percent aboriginal population decrease post-contact.<ref name="dying">{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Donna M|coauthors= Northcott, Herbert C|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=p_pMVs53mzQC&pg=PA25|title=Dying and Death in Canada|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2008|isbn=9781551118734|pages=25–27}}</ref>
Aboriginal peoples in Canada include the First Nations,<ref>{{cite web
 | title = Gateway to Aboriginal Heritage: Culture
 | publisher = Canadian Museum of Civilization
 | date = May 12, 2006
 | url = http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0170e.shtml
 | accessdate =2011-05-23}}
</ref>
[[Inuit]],<ref>{{cite web
 | title=ICC Charter
 | publisher=Inuit Circumpolar Council
 | year=2007
 | url=http://inuitcircumpolar.com/index.php?auto_slide=&ID=374&Lang=En&Parent_ID=&current_slide_num=
 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080226023243/http://inuitcircumpolar.com/index.php?auto_slide=&ID=374&Lang=En&Parent_ID=&current_slide_num=
 | archivedate=2008-02-26
 | accessdate=2011-05-23 }}
</ref>
and [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]].<ref>{{cite web
 | title = In the Kawaskimhon Aboriginal Moot Court Factum of the Federal Crown Canada
 | publisher =[[University of Manitoba]] Faculty of Law
 |year=2007
 |url= http://www.umanitoba.ca/law/newsite/kawaskimhon_factums/FINALWrittenSubmissionsofFederalCrown_windsor.pdf
 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5lOHtrRJy
 |archivedate=2009-11-19
 |page=2
 | accessdate=2011-05-23}}
</ref>
The Métis are a [[mixed-blood]] people who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nation and Inuit married European settlers.<ref>{{cite web
 | title = What to Search: Topics
 | work = Ethno-Cultural and Aboriginal Groups
 | publisher = Library and Archives Canada
 | date = May 27, 2005
 | url = http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/genealogie/022-905.004-e.html
 | accessdate=2011-05-23 }}
</ref> The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during the colonization period.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.heritage.nf.ca/aboriginal/innu_culture.html|work=Innu Culture|title=3. Innu-Inuit 'Warfare'|year=1999|author=Tanner, Adrian|publisher=Department of Anthropology, Memorial University of Newfoundland| accessdate=2011-05-23 }}</ref>

===European colonization===
[[File:Benjamin West 005.jpg|thumb|left|[[Benjamin West]]'s ''[[The Death of General Wolfe]]'' (1771) dramatizes [[James Wolfe|Wolfe]]'s death during the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]] at [[Quebec City|Quebec]] in 1759]]
[[European colonization of the Americas|European colonization]] began when [[Norsemen]] settled briefly at [[L'Anse aux Meadows]] in Newfoundland around 1000.<ref>
{{cite book
|title=The Norse Discovery of America
|first=Arthur Middleton
|last=Reeves
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HkoPUdPM3V8C&pg=PA7
|publisher=BiblioLife
|page=82
|year=2009
|isbn=9780559054006}}</ref>
No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer [[John Cabot]] explored Canada's Atlantic coast for England.<ref>{{cite web|title=John Cabot's voyage of 1498|url=http://www.heritage.nf.ca/exploration/cabot1498.html |publisher=Memorial University of Newfoundland|year=2000|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
Basque and Portuguese mariners established seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.<ref name=hornsby/> In 1534 [[Jacques Cartier]] explored the Saint Lawrence River for France.<ref name=historian>{{cite book|title = A Short History of Canada|first = Desmond | last= Morton|authorlink = Desmond Morton (historian)
|publisher = McClelland & Stewart|year = 2001|edition = 6th|isbn = 0771065094|pages = 9–19, 33, 89–104}}</ref>

In 1583, Sir [[Humphrey Gilbert]] claimed [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's, Newfoundland]] as the first North American [[Colonial empire of the Kingdom of England|English colony]] by royal prerogative of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]].<ref name=DCgil>
{{cite web|title=Gilbert (Gylberte, Jilbert), Sir Humphrey|work=Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online|publisher=University of Toronto|date=May 2, 2005|url=http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34374|accessdate=2011-09-10}}</ref> French explorer [[Samuel de Champlain]] arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at [[Port Royal, Nova Scotia|Port Royal]] in 1605 and Quebec City in 1608. Among [[French colonization of the Americas|French colonists]] of New France, ''[[French Canadian|Canadiens]]'' extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and [[Acadians]] settled the present-day [[Maritimes]], while [[Coureur des bois|fur traders]] and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, [[Hudson Bay]], and the [[Mississippi watershed]] to [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]]. The [[Beaver Wars]] broke out over control of the [[North American fur trade]].<ref name=historian/>

The English established additional colonies in [[Cupids, Newfoundland and Labrador|Cupids]] and [[Ferryland, Newfoundland and Labrador|Ferryland]], [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] beginning in 1610 and soon after founded the [[Thirteen Colonies]] to the south.<ref name=hornsby>{{cite book|last=Hornsby|first=Stephen J|title=British Atlantic, American frontier : spaces of power in early modern British America|year=2005|publisher=University Press of New England|isbn=9781584654278|pages=14, 18–19, 22–23}}</ref> A series of four [[French and Indian Wars]] erupted between 1689 and 1763.<ref name=historian/> Mainland [[Nova Scotia]] came under British rule with the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] (1713); the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)]] ceded Canada and most of New France to [[British Empire|Britain]] after the [[French and Indian War|Seven Years' War]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Allaire|first=Gratien|title=From "Nouvelle-France" to "Francophonie canadienne": a historical survey|journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language|date=May 2007|issue=185|pages=25–52|doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.024}}</ref>

The [[Royal Proclamation of 1763]] carved the [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] out of New France and annexed [[Cape Breton Island]] to Nova Scotia.<ref name="buckner"/> St. John's Island (now [[Prince Edward Island]]) became a separate colony in 1769.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hicks|first=Bruce M|title=Use of Non-Traditional Evidence: A Case Study Using Heraldry to Examine Competing Theories for Canada's Confederation|journal=British Journal of Canadian Studies|date=March 2010|volume=23|issue=1|pages=87–117|doi=10.3828/bjcs.2010.5}}</ref> To avert conflict in Quebec, the British passed the [[Quebec Act]] of 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and [[Ohio River|Ohio Valley]]. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there. This angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies and helped to fuel the [[American Revolution]].<ref name="buckner"/>

The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]] recognized American independence and ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. [[New Brunswick]] was split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes. To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the [[Constitutional Act of 1791]] divided the province into French-speaking [[Lower Canada]] (later [[Quebec#Canadian Confederation|Quebec]]) and English-speaking [[Upper Canada]] (later [[Ontario#Canada West|Ontario]]), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.<ref>{{cite book|last=McNairn|first=Jeffrey L|title=The capacity to judge|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2000|page=24|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=T_A3pZQrHzIC&pg=PA24|isbn=0802043607}}</ref>

[[File:Fathers of Confederation LAC c001855.jpg|left|thumb|[[Robert Harris (painter)|Robert Harris]]'s [[Fathers of Confederation definition|''Fathers of Confederation'']],<ref>This is a photograph taken in 1885 of the now-destroyed 1884 painting.</ref> an amalgamation of the [[Charlottetown Conference|Charlottetown]] and [[Quebec Conference, 1864|Quebec conferences]]]]

[[The Canadas]] were the main front in the [[War of 1812]] between the United States and Britain. Following the war, large-scale immigration to Canada from Britain and [[Ireland]] began in 1815.<ref name=Steckel/> From 1825 to 1846, 626,628 European immigrants landed at Canadian ports.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/QuebecHistory/encyclopedia/ImmigrationHistoryofCanada.htm|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071216101207/http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/QuebecHistory/encyclopedia/ImmigrationHistoryofCanada.htm|archivedate=2007-12-16|title=Immigration History of Canada|year=2004|publisher=Marianopolis College|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
Between one-quarter and one-third of all Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891 died of infectious diseases.<ref name="dying"/>

The desire for [[responsible government]] resulted in the aborted [[Rebellions of 1837]]. The [[Report on the Affairs of British North America|Durham Report]] subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.<ref name="buckner"/> The [[Act of Union 1840]] merged The Canadas into a united [[Province of Canada]]. Responsible government was established for all British North American provinces by 1849.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Romney|first=Paul|date=Spring 1989|title=From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture|journal=Law and History Review|publisher=University of Illinois Press|volume=7|issue=1|page=128}}</ref> The signing of the [[Oregon Treaty]] by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the [[Oregon boundary dispute]], extending the border westward along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]]. This paved the way for British colonies on [[Colony of Vancouver Island|Vancouver Island (1849)]] and in [[Colony of British Columbia|British Columbia (1858)]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Evenden|first=Leonard J|coauthors=Turbeville, Daniel E|title=Geographical snapshots of North America|editor=Janelle, Donald G|publisher=Guilford Press|year=1992|page=52|chapter=The Pacific Coast Borderland and Frontier|isbn=0898620309}}</ref>

===Confederation and expansion===
[[File:Canada provinces evolution 2.gif|thumb|300px|alt=refer to caption|An animated map, exhibiting [[Territorial evolution of Canada|the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories since Confederation]]]]

Following several constitutional conferences, the [[Constitution Act, 1867]] officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, with four provinces: [[Ontario]], [[Quebec]], [[Nova Scotia]], and [[New Brunswick]].<ref>{{cite web| title = Territorial evolution| work = Atlas of Canada | publisher = Natural Resources Canada | url =http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/reference/anniversary_maps/terr_evol | accessdate=2011-05-23}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite web| title = Canada: History| work = Country Profiles | publisher = Commonwealth Secretariat | url =http://www.thecommonwealth.org/YearbookInternal/145152/history/ | accessdate=2011-05-23}}
</ref><ref name=bothwell>
{{cite book|title = History of Canada Since 1867|first = Robert | last = Bothwell|publisher = Michigan State University Press
|year = 1996
|isbn = 0870133993
|pages=31, 207–310}}</ref>
Canada assumed control of [[Rupert's Land]] and the [[North-Western Territory]] to form the [[Northwest Territories]], where the Métis' grievances ignited the [[Red River Rebellion]] and the creation of the province of [[Manitoba]] in July 1870.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bumsted|first=JM|title=The Red River Rebellion|publisher=Watson & Dwyer|year=1996|isbn=0920486231}}</ref> British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had [[United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia|united in 1866]]) and Prince Edward Island joined the Confederation in 1871 and 1873, respectively.<ref name=canatlas>{{cite web|url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/Atlas/themes.aspx?id=building&sub=building_basics_confederation&lang=En|title=Building a nation|work=Canadian Atlas|publisher=Canadian Geographic|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
Prime Minister [[John A. Macdonald]] and his [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative]] government established a [[National Policy]] of [[tariff]]s to protect nascent Canadian manufacturing industries.<ref name=bothwell/>

To open the West, the government sponsored construction of three transcontinental railways (including the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]]), opened the prairies to settlement with the [[Dominion Lands Act]], and established the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police|North-West Mounted Police]] to assert its authority over this territory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/sir-john-a-macdonald/023013-5000-e.html|title=Sir John A. Macdonald|year=2008|publisher=Library and Archives Canada|accessdate=2011-05-23}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite web|url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/publications/archivist-magazine/015002-2230-e.html|title=The Canadian West: An Archival Odyssey through the Records of the Department of the Interior|last=Cook|first=Terry|year=2000|work=The Archivist|publisher=Library and Archives Canada|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
In 1898, after the [[Klondike Gold Rush]] in the Northwest Territories, the Canadian government created the Yukon Territory. Under [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]] Prime Minister [[Wilfrid Laurier]], continental European immigrants settled the prairies, and [[Alberta]] and [[Saskatchewan]] became provinces in 1905.<ref name="canatlas" />

===Early 20th century===
[[File:Canadian tank and soldiers Vimy 1917.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Group of armed soldiers march past a wrecked tank and a body|Canadian soldiers at the [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] in 1917]]
Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the Confederation Act, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into [[World War I]]. Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the [[Canadian Corps]]. The Corps played a substantial role in the [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] and other major battles of the war.<ref name="morton-milhist">{{cite book|last=Morton|first=Desmond|title=A military history of Canada|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|year=1999|edition=4th|pages=130–158, 173, 203–233, 258|isbn=0771065140}}</ref> Out of approximately 625,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 173,000 were wounded.<ref>{{cite book|last=Haglund|first=David G|coauthors= MacFarlane, S Neil|title=Security, strategy and the global economics of defence production|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=1999|page=12|isbn=0889118752}}</ref> The [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]] erupted when conservative Prime Minister [[Robert Borden]] brought in compulsory military service over the objection of French-speaking Quebecers. In 1919, Canada joined the [[League of Nations]] independently of Britain and,<ref name="morton-milhist"/> the [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] affirmed Canada's independence.<ref name=hail/>

The [[Great Depression]] brought economic hardship throughout Canada. In response, the [[Co-operative Commonwealth Federation]] (CCF) in Alberta and Saskatchewan enacted many measures of a [[welfare state]] (as pioneered by [[Tommy Douglas]]) into the 1940s and 1950s.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mulvale|first=James P|title=Basic Income and the Canadian Welfare State: Exploring the Realms of Possibility|journal=Basic Income Studies|date=July 11, 2008|volume=3|issue=1|doi=10.2202/1932-0183.1084}}</ref> Canada [[Military history of Canada during World War II|declared war on Germany]] independently during [[World War II]] under Liberal Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], three days after Britain. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939.<ref name="morton-milhist"/>

Canadian troops played important roles in the failed 1942 [[Dieppe Raid]], the [[Allied invasion of Italy]], the [[Normandy landings]], the [[Operation Overlord|Battle of Normandy]], and the [[Battle of the Scheldt]] in 1944.<ref name="morton-milhist"/> Canada provided asylum for the monarchy of the [[Netherlands]] while that country was occupied, and is credited by the country for leadership and major contributions to its liberation from [[Nazi Germany]].<ref name="netherlands">{{cite book|last=Goddard|first=Lance|title=Canada and the Liberation of the Netherlands|publisher=Dundurn Press Ltd|year=2005|pages=225–232|isbn=1550025473}}</ref> The Canadian economy boomed as industry manufactured military [[materiel]]<!--This is not a misspelling: follow the link to find out the difference between material and materiel--> for Canada, Britain, China, and the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="morton-milhist"/> Despite another [[Conscription Crisis of 1944|Conscription Crisis]] in Quebec, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bothwell|first=Robert|title=Alliance and illusion : Canada and the world, 1945–1984|year=2007|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=9780774813686|pages=11, 31}}</ref>

===Modern times===
[[File:Alexander-NFLD.jpg|thumb|At [[Rideau Hall]], [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|the Viscount Alexander of Tunis]] (centre) receives the bill finalizing the union of [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] and Canada, March 31, 1949.]]

[[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]] (now [[Newfoundland and Labrador]]) joined Canada in 1949.<ref>{{cite web|author=Summers, WF |title=Newfoundland and Labrador |work= Canadian Encyclopedia |publisher=Historica-Dominion|url= http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=a1ARTA0005714#SEC925203|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new [[Canadian identity]], marked by the adoption of the current [[Flag of Canada|Maple Leaf Flag]] in 1965,<ref>{{cite book|last=Mackey|first=Eva|title=The house of difference: cultural politics and national identity in Canada|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2002|isbn=0802084818|page=57}}</ref> the implementation of [[official bilingualism]] ([[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]]) in 1969,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Landry|first=Rodrigue|coauthors=Forgues, Éric|title=Official language minorities in Canada: an introduction|journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language|date=May 2007|issue=185|pages=1–9|doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.022}}</ref> and [[Multiculturalism#Origins in Canada|official multiculturalism]] in 1971.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Esses|first=Victoria M|coauthors= Gardner, RC|date=July 1996|title=Multiculturalism in Canada: Context and current status|journal=Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science|volume=28|issue=3|pages=145–152}}</ref>
There was also the founding of [[Social democracy|socially democratic]] programmes, such as [[Medicare (Canada)|Medicare]], the [[Canada Pension Plan]], and [[Student loans in Canada|Canada Student Loans]], though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/sd-01-09.pdf|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5nDiozOLF|archivedate=2010-02-01|title=Social Policies in Canada: A Model for Development|last=Sarrouh|first=Elissar|date=January 22, 2002|work=Social Policy Series, No. 1|publisher=United Nations|pages=14–16, 22–37|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the 1982 [[patriation]] of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Charter of Rights and Freedoms]].<ref name=bickerton>{{cite book| editor=Bickerton, James; Gagnon, Alain| title=Canadian Politics| publisher=Broadview Press| edition=4th| isbn=1551115956| year=2004|pages=250–254, 344–347}}</ref> In 1999, [[Nunavut]] became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Légaré|first=André|year=2008|title=Canada's Experiment with Aboriginal Self-Determination in Nunavut: From Vision to Illusion |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights|volume=15|issue=2–3|pages=335–367|doi=10.1163/157181108X332659}}</ref>

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the [[Quiet Revolution]] of the 1960s, giving birth to a modern [[Quebec nationalism|nationalist]] movement. The radical [[Front de libération du Québec]] (FLQ) ignited the [[October Crisis]] in 1970.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Munroe|first=HD|title=The October Crisis Revisited: Counterterrorism as Strategic Choice, Political Result, and Organizational Practice|journal=Terrorism and Political Violence|year=2009|volume=21|issue=2|pages=288–305|doi=10.1080/09546550902765623}}</ref> The [[Quebec sovereignty movement|sovereignist]] [[Parti Québécois]] was elected in 1976 and organized an unsuccessful [[referendum]] on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the [[Meech Lake Accord]] failed in 1990.<ref name=sorens>{{cite journal|last=Sorens|first=J|title=Globalization, secessionism, and autonomy|journal=Electoral Studies|date=December 2004|volume=23|issue=4|pages=727–752|doi=10.1016/j.electstud.2003.10.003}}</ref> This led to the formation of the [[Bloc Québécois]] in Quebec and invigoration of the [[Reform Party of Canada]] in the [[Western Canada|West]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/a-brief-history-of-the-bloc-qubcois/article1672831/|title=A brief history of the Bloc Québécois |newspaper= The Globe and Mail|first=Daniel |last=Leblanc|date=August 13, 2010 |accessdate=2010-11-25}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite book|title=The new politics of the Right: neo-Populist parties and movements in ...|first1=Hans-Georg |last1=Betz|first2= Stefan|last2= Immerfall|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=H9cGkDJgW7wC&pg=PA173|page=173|publisher=St. Martinʼs Press|year=1998|isbn=0312211341}}</ref>
A [[Quebec referendum, 1995|second referendum]] followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of just 50.6 to 49.4 percent. In 1997, the [[Supreme Court of Canada|Supreme Court]] ruled that [[Reference re Secession of Quebec|unilateral secession]] by a province would be unconstitutional, and the [[Clarity Act]] was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.<ref name=sorens/>

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of [[Air India Flight 182]] in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.majorcomm.ca/en/termsofreference/|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080622063429/http://www.majorcomm.ca/en/termsofreference/|archivedate=2008-06-22|title=Commission of Inquiry into the Investigation of the Bombing of Air India Flight 182|publisher=Government of Canada |accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> the [[École Polytechnique massacre]] in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;<ref>{{cite web|last= Sourour|first=Teresa K|url=http://www.diarmani.com/Montreal_Coroners_Report.pdf|year=1991 |format=PDF|title=Report of Coroner's Investigation|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> and the [[Oka Crisis]] in 1990,<ref>{{cite news|title=The Oka Crisis|url=http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/99/|format=Digital Archives |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC)|year=2000|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Aboriginal groups.<ref>{{cite book|last=Roach|first=Kent|title=September 11: consequences for Canada|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2003|pages=15, 59–61, 194|isbn=077352584X}}</ref> Canada also joined the [[Gulf War]] in 1990 as part of a US-led coalition force, and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the late 1990s.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Canada and Multilateral Operations in Support of Peace and Stability
|url=http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/news-nouvelles/news-nouvelles-eng.asp?cat=00&id=914
|publisher=National Defence and the Canadian Forces
|year=2010
|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
It sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001, but declined to send forces to Iraq when the US invaded in 2003.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jockel|first=Joseph T|coauthors=Sokolsky, Joel B|year=2008|title=Canada and the war in Afghanistan: NATO's odd man out steps forward|journal=Journal of Transatlantic Studies|volume=6|issue=1|pages=100–115|doi=10.1080/14794010801917212}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Canada}}
[[File:Canada-satellite.jpg|thumb|250px|A satellite composite image of Canada. [[taiga|Boreal forests]] prevail on the rocky [[Canadian Shield]]. Ice and [[tundra]] are prominent in the [[Arctic]]. Glaciers are visible in the [[Canadian Rockies]] and [[Coast Mountains]]. Flat and fertile [[prairie]]s facilitate agriculture. The [[Great Lakes]] feed the [[Saint Lawrence River]] (in the southeast), where lowlands host much of Canada's population.]]

Canada occupies a major northern portion of North America, sharing the land borders with the [[contiguous United States]] to the south and the US state of [[Alaska]] to the northwest, stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean.<ref>{{cite web| title = Canada: Geography| work = Country Profiles | publisher = Commonwealth Secretariat | url =http://www.thecommonwealth.org/YearbookInternal/138398/geography/ | accessdate=2011-05-23}}
</ref><ref name="cia">
{{cite web |publisher= Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html|title=World Factbook: Canada |date=May 16, 2006 |accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
By total area (including its waters), Canada is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|second-largest country]] in the world, after Russia. By land area, Canada [[List of countries and outlying territories by land area|ranks fourth]].<ref name="cia" />

The country lies between latitudes [[41st parallel north|41°]] and [[84th parallel north|84°N]], and longitudes [[52nd meridian west|52°]] and [[141st meridian west|141°W]].
Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between [[60th meridian west|60°]] and 141°W [[longitude]],<ref>{{cite web |publisher= National Resources Canada |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/historical/territorialevolution/1927/1|title=Territorial Evolution, 1927|date=April 6, 2004|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
but this claim is not universally recognized. The northernmost settlement in Canada (and in the world) is [[CFS Alert|Canadian Forces Station Alert]] on the northern tip of [[Ellesmere Island]] – latitude 82.5°N – 817&nbsp;kilometres (450&nbsp;nautical miles, 508&nbsp;miles) from the North Pole.<ref>{{cite journal | publisher = National Defence Canada|last=Susic|first=Stela | date = August 15, 2006 | title =Air Force becomes command authority for CFS Alert|journal=The Maple Leaf|volume=12| issue= 17| url =http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/Commun/ml-fe/article-eng.asp?id=5317 | accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
Much of the Canadian Arctic is covered by ice and [[permafrost]]. Canada also has the longest coastline in the world: {{convert|202080|km|mi}}.<ref name="cia"/>

[[File:Canadian Horseshoe Falls with Buffalo in background.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A semi-circular waterfall between two outcrops of forest|The [[Horseshoe Falls]] in [[Niagara Falls, Ontario]], is one of the world's most voluminous waterfalls,<ref>{{cite web |publisher= Natural Resources Canada |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/learningresources/facts/supergeneral.html |title=Significant Canadian Facts |date=April 5, 2004|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> renowned both for its beauty and as a valuable source of [[hydroelectric power]].]]

Since the last [[glacial period]] Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions, including extensive [[taiga|boreal]] forest on the Canadian Shield.<ref>{{cite book
|title = National Atlas of Canada
|publisher = Natural Resources Canada
|year = 2005
|isbn = 0770511988 |page = 1}}
</ref> Canada has more lakes than any other country, containing much of the world's fresh water.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bailey|first=William G|coauthors=Oke, TR; Rouse, Wayne R|title=The surface climates of Canada|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=1997|page=124|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oxNMhw-rRrQC&pg=PA244|isbn=0773516727}}</ref>
There are also fresh-water glaciers in the [[Canadian Rockies]] and the [[Coast Mountains]].
Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably [[Mount Meager]], [[Mount Garibaldi]], [[Mount Cayley]], and the [[Mount Edziza volcanic complex]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Etkin | first = David | coauthors = Haque, CE; Brooks, Gregory R | title = An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada | publisher = Springer | date = April 30, 2003 | pages =569, 582, 583 |isbn = 9781402011795}}</ref> The volcanic eruption of [[Tseax Cone]] in 1775 caused a catastrophic disaster, killing 2,000 [[Nisga'a people]] and destroying their village in the [[Nass River]] valley of northern British Columbia; the eruption produced a {{convert|22.5|km|adj=on}} lava flow, and according to legend of the Nisga'a people, it blocked the flow of the Nass River.<ref>{{cite web | title = Tseax Cone | work = Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes | publisher = [[Geological Survey of Canada]] | date = August 19, 2005 | url = http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/volcanoes/cat/volcano_e.php?id=svb_tsx_107 | accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>

The [[population density]], {{convert|3.3|PD/km2}}, is among the lowest in the world. The most densely populated part of the country is the [[Quebec City&nbsp;– Windsor Corridor]], situated in Southern Quebec and [[Southern Ontario]] along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/peopleandsociety/population/population2001/density2001|title=Population Density, 2001|date=June 15, 2005|work=Atlas of Canada|publisher=Natural Resources Canada|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>

Average winter and summer high [[Temperature in Canada|temperatures across Canada]] vary according to the location. Winters can be harsh in many regions of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a [[continental climate]], where daily average temperatures are near −15&nbsp;°[[Celsius|C]] (5&nbsp;°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) but can drop below {{convert|-40|°C|°F|abbr=on}} with severe [[wind chill]]s.<ref>{{cite web |author=[[The Weather Network]]|url=http://www.theweathernetwork.com/statistics/C02072/CASK0261?CASK0261 |title=Statistics, Regina SK |accessdate=2010-01-18 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090105062344/http://www.theweathernetwork.com/statistics/C02072/CASK0261?CASK0261 |archivedate=January 5, 2009}}</ref> In noncoastal regions, snow can cover the ground almost six months of the year (more in the north). Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from {{convert|25|to|30|C|F}}, with occasional extreme heat in some interior locations exceeding {{convert|40|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |publisher= Environment Canada |url=http://climate.weatheroffice.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html |title=Canadian Climate Normals or Averages 1971–2000|date=March 25, 2004|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>{{clearright}}

==Government and politics==
{{Main|Government of Canada|Politics of Canada}}
{{See also|Elections in Canada|List of political parties in Canada}}
[[File:Canadian parliament MAM.JPG|thumb|alt=A building with a central clocktower rising from a block|[[Parliament Hill]] in Canada's capital, Ottawa]]
Canada has strong democratic traditions upheld through a [[parliamentary system]] within the construct of [[constitutional monarchy]]; the [[monarchy of Canada]] is the foundation of the [[Executive (government)|executive]], [[Legislature|legislative]], and [[Judiciary|judicial]] branches.<ref>{{Cite document| author=[[Queen Victoria]]|date=March 29, 1867| title=Constitution Act, 1867: Preamble| publisher=Queen's Printer| url=http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/ca_1867.html |year=1867 |accessdate=2011-05-23}}
</ref><ref>{{Cite news| last=Smith| first=David E| title=The Crown and the Constitution: Sustaining Democracy?| periodical=The Crown in Canada: Present Realities and Future Options| page=6| publisher=Queen's University| date=June 10, 2010| url=http://www.queensu.ca/iigr/conf/ConferenceOnTheCrown/CrownConferencePapers/The_Crown_and_the_Constitutio1.pdf| archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5qXvz463C| archivedate=2010-06-17|accessdate=2011-05-23}}
</ref><ref name=MacLeod16>{{Cite book| last=MacLeod| first=Kevin S| authorlink=Kevin S. MacLeod| title=A Crown of Maples| publisher=Queen's Printer| year=2008| page=16| edition=1st| url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/fr-rf/crnCdn/crn_mpls-eng.pdf| isbn=978-0-662-46012-1| accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite document|author=Canadian Heritage| title=Canadian Heritage Portfolio| publisher=Queen's Printer| date=February 2009| edition=2nd| url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pc-ch/publctn/gp-pg/ppc-chp/ppc-chp-eng.pdf| pages=3–4| isbn=9781100115290|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> The sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II, who also serves as head of state of [[Commonwealth realm|15 other Commonwealth countries]] and each of Canada's ten provinces and resides predominantly in the United Kingdom. As such, the Queen's representative, the [[Governor General of Canada]] (presently [[David Johnston|David Lloyd Johnston]]), carries out most of the federal royal duties in Canada.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Governor General of Canada: Roles and Responsibilities|url=http://gg.ca/document.aspx?id=3|publisher=Queen's Printer|accessdate=2011-05-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title=Commonwealth public administration reform 2004| publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat| year=2004| pages=54–55|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ATi5R5XNb2MC&pg=PA54| isbn=0117032492}}</ref>

The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in areas of governance is limited;<ref name=MacLeod16 /><ref name=Forseyp1>{{cite book| last=Forsey| first=Eugene| authorlink=Eugene Forsey| title=How Canadians Govern Themselves| pages=1, 16| edition=6th| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada| year=2005| isbn=0662396898| url=http://www2.parl.gc.ca/sites/lop/aboutparliament/forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf| archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5vkPPetrW| archivedate=2011-01-15|  accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref><ref name=Montpetit>{{cite web| url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Lang=E&Print=2&Sec=Ch01&Seq=5| last=Marleau| first=Robert| last2=Montpetit| first2=Camille| title=House of Commons Procedure and Practice: Parliamentary Institutions| publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada| accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> in practice, their use of the executive powers is directed by [[Canadian Cabinet|the Cabinet]], a committee of [[Minister of the Crown|ministers of the Crown]] responsible to the elected [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]] and chosen and headed by the [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (presently [[Stephen Harper]]<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.pm.gc.ca/eng/pm.asp?featureId=7| title=Prime Minister of Canada| publisher=Queen's Printer| year=2009| accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>), the [[head of government]]. To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a [[plurality (voting)|plurality]] in the House of Commons.<ref>{{cite book| last=Johnson| first=David| title=Thinking government: public sector management in Canada| publisher=University of Toronto Press| year=2006| edition=2nd| pages=134–135, 149| isbn=1551117797}}</ref> The [[Office of the Prime Minister (Canada)|Prime Minister's Office]] (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, [[Lieutenant governor (Canada)|lieutenant governors]], senators, federal court judges, and heads of [[Crown corporations of Canada|Crown corporations]] and government agencies.<ref name=Forseyp1/> The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the [[Leader of the Official Opposition (Canada)|Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition]] (presently [[Nycole Turmel]]) and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.<ref>{{cite web|last=Library of Parliament|title=The Opposition in a Parliamentary System|url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/researchpublications/bp47-e.htm|publisher=Library of Parliament|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
[[File:Cansenate.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Canadian Senate|Senate chamber]] within the [[Centre Block]] on [[Parliament Hill]]]]

Each of the 308 [[Member of Parliament|Members of Parliament]] in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an [[Canadian electoral district|electoral district]] or riding. General elections must be called by the governor general, on the advice of the prime minister, within four years of the previous election, or may be triggered by the government losing a [[confidence vote]] in the House.<ref>{{cite web|author=O'Neal, Brian; Bédard, Michel; Spano, Sebastian|date=April 11, 2011|title=Government and Canada’s 41st Parliament: Questions and Answers|url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2011-37-e.htm|publisher=Library of Parliament|accessdate=2011-06-02}}</ref> The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Hicks| first=Bruce M| coauthors=Blais, André| year=2008| title=Restructuring the Canadian Senate through Elections| journal=IIRP Choices| publisher=Institute for Research on Public Policy| volume=14| issue=14| page=11|url=http://www.irpp.org/choices/archive/vol14no15.pdf}}</ref> Five parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in the 2011 elections: the [[Conservative Party of Canada]] (governing party), the [[New Democratic Party]] (the [[Official Opposition (Canada)|Official Opposition]]), the [[Liberal Party of Canada]], the [[Bloc Québécois]], and the [[Green Party of Canada]]. The list of [[List of federal political parties in Canada#Historical parties that have won seats in Parliament|historical parties]] with elected representation is substantial.

[[Canadian federalism|Canada's federal structure]] divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. [[Legislative Assemblies of Canadian provinces and territories|Provincial legislatures]] are [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.<ref name=Montpetit /> Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces and with some structural differences.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.pco-bcp.gc.ca/aia/index.asp?lang=eng&page=provterr&sub=difference&doc=difference-eng.htm|title=Difference between Canadian Provinces and Territories| year=2009| publisher=Intergovernmental Affairs Canada| accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/_live/pages/wpPages/factscomparisonofprovincialandterritorial.aspx| title=A Comparison of Provincial & Territorial Governments| year=2008| publisher=Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories| accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>

===Law===
The [[Constitution of Canada]] is the supreme law of the country, and consists of written text and unwritten conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the [[British North America Acts|British North America Act]] prior to 1982) affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments; the [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] granted full autonomy; and the [[Constitution Act, 1982]], ended all legislative ties to the UK, added a constitutional amending formula, and added the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]], which guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any government – though a [[Section Thirty-three of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|notwithstanding clause]] allows the federal parliament and provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bakan|first=Joel|coauthors= Elliot, Robin M|title=Canadian Constitutional Law|publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications|year=2003|pages=3–8, 683–687, 699|isbn=1552390853}}</ref>
[[File:Medal-Viki.jpg|thumb|alt=Two sides of a silver medal: the profile of Queen Victoria and the inscription "Victoria Regina" on one side, a man in European garb shaking hands with an Aboriginal with the inscription "Indian Treaty 187" on the other|The Indian Chiefs Medal, presented to commemorate the [[Numbered Treaties]]]]

Although not without conflict, [[Euro-Canadian|European Canadians]]' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful. [[The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples|The Crown and Aboriginal peoples]] began [[Timeline of colonization of North America|interactions]] during the European colonialization period. [[Numbered Treaties]], the [[Indian Act]], the Constitution Act of 1982, and case laws were established.<ref name=FN>{{Cite document| author=[[Assembly of First Nations]], [[Elizabeth II]]| contribution=A First Nations&nbsp;– Federal Crown Political Accord| url=http://www.turtleisland.org/news/prekelowna.pdf| series=1| year=2004| page=3| publisher=Assembly of First Nations| archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5mNOfuTmo| archivedate=2009-12-29| ref=harv| accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> A series of eleven treaties were signed between Aboriginals in Canada and the reigning Monarch of Canada from 1871 to 1921.<ref>{{cite web|title = Treaty areas| publisher=Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat| date=October 7, 2002| url=http://dsp-psd.communication.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/EB/prb9916-e.htm| accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> These treaties are agreements with the Government of Canada administered by [[Canadian Aboriginal law]] and overseen by the [[Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development (Canada)|Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development]]. The role of the treaties was reaffirmed by [[Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982]], which "recognizes and affirms existing Aboriginal and treaty rights".<ref name=FN/> These rights may include provision of services such as health care, and exemption from taxation.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/aboriginals/treaty8.html|title=What is Treaty 8?|publisher=CBC| accessdate =2011-05-23}}</ref> The legal and policy framework within which Canada and First Nations operate was further formalized in 2005, through the First Nations–Federal Crown Political Accord.<ref name=FN/>
[[File:Supreme Court of Canada, Ottawa.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill]]

Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down laws that violate the Constitution. The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led by the Chief Justice [[Beverley McLachlin]], P.C. (the first female Chief Justice) since 2000.<ref>{{cite book|last=McCormick|first=Peter|title=Supreme at last: the evolution of the Supreme Court of Canada|publisher=James Lorimer & Company Ltd|year=2000|pages=2, 86, 154|isbn=1550286927}}</ref> Its nine members are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the Prime Minister and Minister of Justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with nongovernmental legal bodies. The federal cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts at the provincial and territorial levels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scc-csc.gc.ca/court-cour/sys/index-eng.asp|title=About the Court|year=2009|publisher=Supreme Court of Canada|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>

[[Common law]] prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] predominates. [[Criminal law of Canada|Criminal law]] is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sworden|first=Philip James|title=An introduction to Canadian law|publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications|year=2006|pages=22, 150|isbn=1552391450}}</ref> Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is a provincial responsibility, but in rural areas of all provinces except Ontario and Quebec, policing is contracted to the federal [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbpei-ecn.ca/documents/ECN-Forensics.pdf#neighbourhood|last=Royal Canadian Mounted Police|title=Keeping Canada and Our Communities Safe and Secure|publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>

===Foreign relations and military===
[[File:Barack Obama meets Stephen Harper.jpg|thumb|Prime Minister Stephen Harper meeting [[President of the United States]] [[Barack Obama]]]]

Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partner.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Haglung|first=David G|date=Autumn 2003|title=North American Cooperation in an Era of Homeland Security |journal=Orbis|publisher=Foreign Policy Research Institute|volume=47|issue=4|pages=675–691|doi=10.1016/S0030-4387(03)00072-3}}</ref> Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full relations with [[Cuba]] and declining to officially participate in the [[Iraq War]]. Canada also maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and the [[Francophonie]].<ref>{{cite book|last=James|first=Patrick|title=Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy|editor= Michaud, Nelson; O'Reilly, Marc J|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2006|pages=213–214, 349–362|isbn=073911493X}}</ref> Canada is noted for having a positive [[Canada–Netherlands relations|relationship with the Netherlands]], owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation.<ref name="netherlands"/>

Canada currently employs a professional, volunteer military force of over 67,000 regular and approximately 43,000 reserve personnel including supplementary reserves.<ref>{{cite web |publisher= Department of National Defence |url=http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/acf-apfc/index-eng.asp |title=About the Canadian Forces|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> The unified [[Canadian Forces]] (CF) comprise the [[Canadian Army]], [[Royal Canadian Navy]], and [[Royal Canadian Air Force]].

Strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the [[Second Boer War]], World War I and World War II. Since then, Canada has been an advocate for [[multilateralism]], making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Teigrob|first=Robert|title='Which Kind of Imperialism?' Early Cold War Decolonization and Canada–US Relations|journal=Canadian Review of American Studies|date=September 2010|volume=37|issue=3|pages=403–430|doi=10.3138/cras.37.3.403}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book |title = Canada's international policy statement: a role of pride and influence in the world|publisher = Government of Canada |url=http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/ips-development |year=2005 |isbn = 066268608X |accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> Canada was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and of [[NATO]] in 1949. During the [[Canada in the Cold War|Cold War]], Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the [[Korean War]] and founded the [[North American Aerospace Defense Command]] (NORAD) in cooperation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book|last=Finkel|first=Alvin|title=Our lives: Canada after 1945|publisher=Lorimer|year=1997|pages=105–107, 111–116|isbn=1550285513}}</ref>
[[File:US Navy 090425-M-9917S-314 Canadian Army soldiers assigned to Alpha Company, 3d Battalion, 22d Regiment of Special Purpose Marine Air Ground Task Force-24 depart a U.S. Navy landing craft air cushion (LCAC) and deploy onto Mayp.jpg||thumb|left|[[Canadian Army]] soldiers from the [[Royal 22e Régiment|Royal 22<sup>e</sup> Régiment]] during UNITAS Gold (April 25, 2009)]]

During the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956, future Prime Minister [[Lester B. Pearson]] eased tensions by proposing the inception of the [[peacekeeping|United Nations Peacekeeping Force]], for which he was awarded the 1957 [[Nobel Peace Prize]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Holloway|first=Steven Kendall|title=Canadian foreign policy: defining the national interest|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2006|pages=102–103|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MSHy65g7M7wC&pg=PA102|isbn=1551118165}}</ref> As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept. Canada has since served in 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,<ref name="morton-milhist"/> and has since maintained forces in international missions in [[Rwanda]], the former [[Yugoslavia]], and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 [[Somalia Affair]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/27/world/torture-by-army-peacekeepers-in-somalia-shocks-canada.html|title=Torture by Army Peacekeepers in Somalia Shocks Canada|last=Farnsworth|first=Clyde H|date=November 27, 1994|newspaper=The New York Times|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>

Canada joined the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in [[Windsor, Ontario]], in June 2000 and the third Summit of the Americas in Quebec City in April 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ai-ia/rir-iro/am-as/oea-oas-eng.cfm|title=Canada and the Organization of American States (OAS)|year=2008|publisher=Canadian Heritage|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> Canada seeks to expand its ties to [[Pacific Rim]] economies through membership in the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] forum (APEC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/cimar-rcami/2009/06_apec.aspx|title=Opening Doors to Asia|year=2009|publisher=Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
[[File:HMCS Regina (FFH 334) 1.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Halifax class frigate|Halifax-class]] [[frigate]] [[HMCS Regina (FFH 334)|HMCS ''Regina'']], a warship of the [[Royal Canadian Navy]]]]

In 2001, Canada had troops deployed to [[Afghanistan]] as part of the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|US stabilization force]] and the UN-authorized, NATO-commanded [[International Security Assistance Force]]. Starting in July 2011, Canada began withdrawing its troops from Afghanistan.  The mission had cost 157 soldiers, one diplomat, two aid workers, and one journalist their lives,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.seattlepi.com/news/article/Canada-ends-combat-mission-in-Afghanistan-1456030.php|title=Canada ends combat mission in Afghanistan|last=Reichmann|first=Deb|date=July 7, 2011|accessdate=2011-07-11}}</ref> with an approximate cost of [[Canadian dollar|C$]]11.3&nbsp;billion<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afghanistan.gc.ca/canada-afghanistan/news-nouvelles/2010/2010_07_09.aspx?lang=eng|title=Cost of the Afghanistan mission 2001–2011|accessdate=2011-07-11}}</ref>
Canada and the US continue to integrate state and provincial agencies to strengthen security along the [[Canada-United States border]] through the [[Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Konrad|first=Victor|coauthors= Nicol, Heather N|title=Beyond walls: re-inventing the Canada-United States borderlands|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|year=2008|pages=189, 196|isbn=0754672026}}</ref>

In February 2007, Canada, Italy, Britain, [[Norway]], and Russia announced their funding commitments to launch a $1.5&nbsp;billion project to help develop vaccines they said could save millions of lives in poor nations, and called on others to join them.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/02/06/idUSL06661675._CH_.2400|title=Rich nations to sign $1.5 bln vaccine pact in Italy|last=Vagnoni|first=Giselda|date=February 5, 2007|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> In August 2007, Canada's [[territorial claims in the Arctic]] were challenged after a [[Arktika 2007|Russian underwater expedition]] to the [[North Pole]]; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.<ref>{{cite news | last = Blomfield | first = Adrian| url = http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1559165/Russia-claims-North-Pole-with-Arctic-flag-stunt.html | newspaper = [[The Daily Telegraph]] | title = Russia claims North Pole with Arctic flag stunt | date = August 3, 2007 | accessdate=2011-05-23 }}</ref> In July 2010 the largest purchase in [[Military history of Canada|Canadian military history]], totaling C$9&nbsp;billion for the acquisition of 65 [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II|F-35 fighters]] was announced by the federal government.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-10667633
|title=Row over Canada F-35 fighter jet order
|publisher=BBC News
|date=July 16, 2010
|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>

===Provinces and territories===
Canada is a federation composed of ten [[province]]s and three [[territory (administrative division)|territories]]. In turn, these may be [[List of regions of Canada|grouped into regions]]: [[Western Canada]], [[Central Canada]], [[Atlantic Canada]], and [[Northern Canada]] ([[Eastern Canada]] refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together). Provinces have more autonomy than territories. The provinces are responsible for most of Canada's social programs (such as [[Health care in Canada|health care]], [[Education in Canada|education]], and [[welfare]]) and together collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the [[Canada Health Act]]; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in practice. [[Equalization payments]] are made by the federal government to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-516-x/sectionh/4057752-eng.htm|title=Government Finance|last=Bird|first=Richard M|date=October 22, 2008|work=Historical Statistics of Canada|publisher=Statistics Canada|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
{{Canada image map}}
{{clearleft}}

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Canada}}
[[File:Canadian bills2.jpg|upright|left|thumb|alt=A set of specimen banknotes, with $5 (blue) on top, followed by $10 (purple), $20 (green), $50 (red), and $100 (brown)|Current [[Banknotes of the Canadian dollar|Canadian banknotes]], depicting (top to bottom) [[Wilfrid Laurier]], [[John A. Macdonald]], [[Monarchy of Canada|Queen of Canada (Elizabeth II)]], [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], and [[Robert Borden]]]]

Canada is one of the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|wealthiest nations]], with a high per-capita income. It is a member of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD) and the [[G8]], and is one of the world's top ten trading nations.<ref>{{cite web |publisher= World Trade Organization|url=http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres08_e/pr520_e.htm|title=Latest release |date=April 17, 2008 |accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> Canada is a [[mixed economy]], ranking above the US and most western European nations on the [[Heritage Foundation]]'s index of economic freedom.<ref>{{cite web |year=2009 | publisher = Heritage Foundation and the Wall Street Journal| title = Index of Economic Freedom | url = http://www.heritage.org/Index/ | accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> The largest foreign importers of Canadian goods are the United States, the United Kingdom, and Japan.<ref name="import-export">{{cite web|url=http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/gblec02a-eng.htm|title=Imports, exports and trade balance of goods on a balance-of-payments basis, by country or country grouping |date=November 16, 2009|publisher=Statistics Canada|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>

In the past century, the growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to a more industrial and urban one. Like other [[First World]] nations, the Canadian economy is dominated by the [[Tertiary sector of the economy|service industry]], which employs about three quarters of Canadians.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/econ40-eng.htm|publisher=Statistics Canada|title=Employment by Industry|date=January 8, 2009 |accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> Canada is unusual among [[developed countries]] in the importance of its [[primary sector of the economy|primary sector]], in which the logging and [[petroleum industry|petroleum industries]] are two of the most important.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Easterbrook|first=WT|date=March 1995|title=Recent Contributions to Economic History: Canada|journal=Journal of Economic History|volume=19|page=98}}</ref>

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.<ref name="energy">{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Charles E|title=World energy resources|publisher=Springer|year=2002|pages=323, 378–389|isbn=3540426345}}</ref> Atlantic Canada has vast [[Offshore drilling|offshore]] deposits of [[natural gas]], and Alberta has large oil and gas resources. The immense [[Athabasca oil sands]] give Canada the world's second-largest [[oil reserves]], behind [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Clarke, Tony; Campbell, Bruce; Laxer, Gordon |publisher= Parkland Institute |url=http://parklandinstitute.ca/downloads/reports/FuellingFortressAmericareport.pdf |title=US oil addiction could make us sick |date=March 10, 2006|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>

Canada is one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.<ref name="britton">{{cite book|last=Britton|first=John NH|title=Canada and the Global Economy: The Geography of Structural and Technological Change|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=1996|pages=26–27, 155–163|isbn=0773513566}}</ref> Canada is the largest producer of [[zinc]] and [[uranium]], and is a global source of many other natural resources, such as gold, nickel, aluminum, and lead.<ref name="energy"/> Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and [[aeronautics]] representing particularly important industries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-516-x/sectionv/4057758-eng.htm#V332_350|title=Vl-12|last=Leacy|first=FH (ed.)|year=1983|publisher=Statistics Canada|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>

[[File:Nafta.jpg|thumb|Representatives of the governments of Canada, Mexico, and the United States sign the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] in 1992]]

Economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II. The [[Automotive Products Trade Agreement]] of 1965 opened the borders to trade in the auto manufacturing industry. In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government to enact the [[National Energy Program]] (NEP) and the [[Investment Canada|Foreign Investment Review Agency]] (FIRA).<ref>{{cite book|last=Morck|first=Randall|coauthors=Tian, Gloria; Yeung, Bernard|title=Governance, multinationals, and growth|editor=Eden, Lorraine; Dobson, Wendy|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|year=2005|page=50|chapter=Who owns whom? Economic nationalism and family controlled pyramidal groups in Canada|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q4gt2xhqpSIC&pg=PA50|isbn=1843769093}}</ref>

In the 1980s, Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]]'s Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to "[[Investment Canada]]" in order to encourage foreign investment.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hale|first=Geoffrey|title=The Dog That Hasn't Barked: The Political Economy of Contemporary Debates on Canadian Foreign Investment Policies|journal=Canadian Journal of Political Science|date=October 2008|volume=41|issue=03|pages=719–747|doi=10.1017/S0008423908080785}}</ref> The [[Canada&nbsp;– United States Free Trade Agreement]] (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include [[Mexico]] in the 1990s.<ref name="britton"/> In the mid-1990s, the Liberal government under [[Jean Chrétien]] began to post annual budgetary surpluses and steadily paid down the national debt.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2009/07/13/f-jean-chretien.html|title=Jean Chrétien|date=July 13, 2009|publisher=CBC|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> The [[global financial crisis of 2008]] caused a [[recession of 2008|recession]], which could increase the country's unemployment rate to 10 percent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalpost.com/related/topics/story.html?id=1383376|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5nDiwjKnX|archivedate=2010-02-01|title=Jobless rate to peak at 10%: TD|last=Sturgeon|first=Jamie|date=March 13, 2009|publisher=National Post|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> In 2008, Canada's imported goods were worth over $442.9&nbsp;billion, of which $280.8&nbsp;billion was from the United States, $11.7&nbsp;billion from Japan, and $11.3&nbsp;billion from the United Kingdom.<ref name="import-export" /> The country’s 2009 [[trade deficit]] totaled C$4.8&nbsp;billion, compared with a C$46.9&nbsp;billion surplus in 2008.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/canada-has-first-yearly-trade-deficit-since-1975/article1462607/ |title=Canada has first yearly trade deficit since 1975|newspaper= The Globe and Mail|date=February 10, 2010|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>

As of October 2009, Canada's national [[unemployment]] rate was 8.6 percent. Provincial unemployment rates vary from a low of 5.8 percent in Manitoba to a high of 17 percent in Newfoundland and Labrador.<ref>{{cite web |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/subjects-sujets/labour-travail/lfs-epa/lfs-epa-eng.htm|title=Latest release from Labour Force Survey |date=November 6, 2009|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> Between October 2008, and October 2010, the Canadian labour market lost 162,000 full-time jobs and a total of 224,000 permanent jobs.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/economy-lab/the-economists/the-real-state-of-canadas-jobs-market/article1757129/|title=The real state of Canada's jobs market |date=October 15, 2010|newspaper=The Globe and Mail|accessdate=2010-12-12|first=Armine|last=Yalnizyan}}</ref> [[Canadian public debt|Canada's federal debt]] is estimated to be $566.7&nbsp;billion for 2010–11, up from $463.7&nbsp;billion in 2008–09.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://toronto.ctv.ca/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20100304/budget_2010_100304/20100304?hub=TorontoNewHome|title=Budget fights deficit with freeze on future spending|publisher=[[CTV News]]|date=March 4, 2010|accessdate=2011-05-21}}</ref> Canada’s net [[foreign debt]] rose by $41-billion to $194-billion in the first quarter of 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/100617/dq100617b-eng.htm|title=Canada's international investment position|publisher=Statistics Canada|work=The Daily|date=June 17, 2010|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>

===Science and technology===
[[File:STS-116 Payload (NASA S116-E-05364).jpg|thumb|alt=A shuttle in space, with Earth in the background. A mechanical arm labeled "Canada" rises from the shuttle|The [[Canadarm]] in action on the [[Space Shuttle Discovery]] during [[STS-116]]]]

Canada is an [[Developed country|industrial nation]] with a highly developed science and technology sector. Nearly 1.88 percent of Canada's GDP is allocated to research & development (R&D).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/88-221-x/2008002/part-partie1-eng.htm|title=Gross domestic expenditures on research and development|publisher=Statistics Canada|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> The country has ten [[List of Nobel laureates by country|Nobel laureates]] in physics, chemistry and medicine.<ref>{{cite web|title=Canadian Nobel Prize in Science Laureates|url=http://resources.educ.queensu.ca/science/main/profdev/pdjsi1.htm|publisher=Queen's University|accessdate=2011-06-02}}</ref> Canada ranks twelfth in the world for Internet usage with 28.0&nbsp;million users, 84.3 percent of the total population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats14.htm#north|title=Internet Usage and Population in North America|publisher=Internetworldstats|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>

The [[Canadian Space Agency]] conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, and develops rockets and satellites. In 1984, [[Marc Garneau]] became Canada's first astronaut, serving as payload specialist of [[STS-41-G]]. Canada was ranked third among 20 top countries in space sciences.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?sectioncode=26&storycode=408577&c=1|title=Top countries in space sciences|newspaper=Times Higher Education|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> Canada is a participant in the [[International Space Station]] and one of the world's pioneers in space [[robotics]] with the [[Canadarm]], [[Canadarm2]] and [[Dextre]]. Since the 1960s, Canada Aerospace Industries have designed and built 10 satellites, including [[Radarsat-1]], [[Radarsat-2]] and [[Microvariability and Oscillations of STars telescope|MOST]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/March2010/11/c9200.html|title=The Canadian Aerospace Industry praises the federal government for recognizing Space as a strategic capability for Canada|publisher=Newswire |accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> Canada also produced one of the most successful [[sounding rocket]]s, the [[Black Brant (rocket)|Black Brant]]; over 1000 have been launched since they were initially produced in 1961.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bristol.ca/BlackBrant.html|title=Black Brant Sounding Rockets|publisher=Magellan Aerospace|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> Universities across Canada are working on the first domestic [[Lander (spacecraft)|landing spacecraft]]: the [[Northern Light (spacecraft)|Northern Light]], designed to search for life on Mars and investigate Martian electromagnetic radiation environment and atmospheric properties. If the Northern Light is successful, Canada will be the third country to land on another planet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marketwire.com/press-release/Canada-on-Mars-1022306.htm|title=Canada on Mars?|publisher=Marketwire|accessdate=2009-07-27}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Historical populations
|type =
|footnote = Source: [[Statistics Canada]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Estimated population of Canada, 1605 to present|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/98-187-x/4151287-eng.htm|publisher=Statistics Canada|year=2009|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
|[[Population of Canada by year|1851]] | 2415000
|[[Population of Canada by year|1861]] | 3174000
|[[Population of Canada by year|1871]] | 3689000
|[[Population of Canada by year|1881]] | 4325000
|[[Population of Canada by year|1891]] | 4833000
|[[Population of Canada by year|1901]] | 5371000
|[[Population of Canada by year|1911]] | 7207000
|[[Population of Canada by year|1921]] | 8788000
|[[Population of Canada by year|1931]] | 10377000
|[[Population of Canada by year|1941]] | 11507000
|[[Population of Canada by year|1951]] | 14009000
|[[Population of Canada by year|1961]] | 18238000
|[[Population of Canada by year|1971]] | 21962000
|[[Population of Canada by year|1981]] | 24820000
|[[Population of Canada by year|1991]] | 28031000
|[[Population of Canada by year|2001]] | 31021000
|[[Population of Canada by year|2011]] est. | {{canpop}}
}}

The [[Canada 2006 Census]] counted a [[Population of Canada by year|total population]] of 31,612,897, an increase of 5.4 percent since 2001.<ref>{{cite news |author= Beauchesne, Eric |newspaper=National Post |url=http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/financialpost/story.html?id=73b94aac-08f0-477f-a72a-b8b640f6658f&k=90795 |title=We are 31,612,897|date=March 13, 2007|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> Population in Canada increased from 1990 to 2008 with 5.6 million and 20.4 % growth in population compared to 21,7 % growth in the [[United States|USA]] and 31.2 % growth in [[Mexico]]. According to the OECD/World Bank population statistics between 1990–2008 the [[world population]] growth was 27 % and 1,423 million persons.<ref name=IEApop2011>[http://www.iea.org/co2highlights/co2Highlights.XLS CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion] Population 1971–2008 ([http://iea.org/co2highlights/co2highlights.pdf pdf] pages 83–85) IEA (OECD/ World Bank) <small>original population ref e.g. in IEA Key World Energy Statistics 2010 page 57</small>)</ref> Population growth is from [[Immigration to Canada|immigration]] and, to a lesser extent, natural growth. About four-fifths of Canada's population lives within {{convert|150|km|mi}} of the United States border.<ref>{{cite book|last=Custred|first=Glynn|title=Immigration policy and the terrorist threat in Canada and the United States|editor=Moens, Alexander|publisher=Fraser Institute|year=2008|page=96|chapter=Security Threats on America's Borders|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HmiqBgnkAXYC&pg=PA96|isbn=0889752354}}</ref> The majority of Canadians (approximately 80%) live in urban areas concentrated in the Quebec City&nbsp;– Windsor Corridor, the BC [[Lower Mainland]], and the [[Calgary–Edmonton Corridor]] in Alberta.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-221-x/00503/t/th/4062283-eng.htm | title = Urban-rural population as a proportion of total population, Canada, provinces, territories and health regions | year = 2001 | publisher = Statistics Canada | accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref> In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age of the population was 39.5 years.<ref>{{cite web | last = Martel | first = Laurent | coauthors = Malenfant, Éric Caron | title = 2006 Census: Portrait of the Canadian Population in 2006, by Age and Sex | publisher = Statistics Canada | date = September 22, 2009 | url = http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-551/index-eng.cfm?CFID=3347169&CFTOKEN=19485112 | accessdate=2009-10-18 }}</ref>

According to the 2006 census, the largest self-reported ethnic origin is [[Canadians|Canadian]] (32%), followed by [[English Canadian|English]] (21%), [[French Canadian|French]] (15.8%), [[Scottish Canadian|Scottish]] (15.1%), [[Irish Canadian|Irish]] (13.9%), [[Canadians of German ethnicity|German]] (10.2%), [[Italian Canadians|Italian]] (4.6%), [[Chinese Canadian|Chinese]] (4.3%), [[First Nations]] (4.0%), [[Ukrainian Canadian|Ukrainian]] (3.9%), and [[Canadians of Dutch descent|Dutch]] (3.3%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/hlt/97-562/pages/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Data=Count&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000|title=Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada – Data table|date=July 28, 2009|publisher=Statistics Canada|accessdate=2011-05-23}}</ref>
There are 600 recognized [[List of First Nations peoples|First Nations governments or bands]] encompassing 1,172,790 people.<ref>{{cite web
 | title = Aboriginal Identity (8), Sex (3) and Age Groups (12) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census&nbsp;– 20% Sample Data
 | work = 2006 Census: Topic-based tabulations
 | publisher = Statistics Canada
 | date=June 12, 2008
 | url = http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=837928&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=89122&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971,97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&THEME=73&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=
 | accessdate = 2009-09-18}}
</ref>

Canada's Aboriginal population is growing at almost twice the national rate, and 3.8 percent of Canada's population claimed aboriginal identity in 2006. Another 16.2 percent of the population belonged to a non-aboriginal [[visible minority]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/04/02/stats-immigration.html|title=One in 6 Canadians is a visible minority|date=April 2, 2008|publisher=CBC|accessdate=2009-10-20}}</ref> The largest visible minority groups in Canada are [[South Asia]]n (4.0%), Chinese (3.9%) and [[Black Canadians|Black]] (2.5%). Between 2001 and 2006, the visible minority population rose by 27.2 percent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/080402/dq080402a-eng.htm|title=2006 Census: Ethnic origin, visible minorities, place of work and mode of transportation|date=April 2, 2008|work=The Daily|publisher=Statistics Canada|accessdate=2010-01-19}}</ref> In 1961, less than two percent of Canada's population (about 300,000 people) could be classified as belonging to a visible minority group and less than 1% as aboriginal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rhdcc-hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/labour/equality/racism/racism_free_init/pendakur.shtml|title=Visible Minorities and Aboriginal Peoples in Vancouver's Labour Market|last=Pendakur|first=Krishna|publisher=Simon Fraser University|accessdate=2010-01-18}}</ref> As of 2007, almost one in five Canadians (19.8%) were foreign-born. Nearly 60 percent of new immigrants come from Asia (including the Middle East).<ref>{{cite web
 | work = The Daily|title=2006&nbsp;Census: Immigration, citizenship, language, mobility and migration
 | publisher = Statistics Canada
 | date =December 4, 2007
 | url = http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/071204/dq071204a-eng.htm
 | accessdate=2009-10-19}}
</ref> The leading emigrating countries to Canada were China, Philippines and India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Politics/2010/11/09/16054896.html|first= Brian |last=Lilley |work=Parliamentary Bureau |title=Canadians want immigration shakeup|publisher=Canadian Online Explorer|year=2010|accessdate=2010-11-14}}</ref> By 2031, one in three Canadians could belong to a visible minority group.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/the-changing-face-of-canada-booming-minority-populations-by-2031/article1494651/ |title=The changing face of Canada: booming minority populations by 2031|newspaper=The Globe and Mail|date=March 9, 2010|accessdate=2010-11-13|format=Subscription required|first=Joe|last=Friesen}}</ref>

Canada has one of the [[Immigration to Canada#Immigration rate|highest per-capita immigration rates in the world]],<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kv4nlSWLT8UC&pg=PA51|page=51|title=Canada|first=Karla |last=Zimmerman|publisher=Lonely Planet Publications|year=2008|edition=10th|isbn=9781741045710}}</ref> driven by [[Economic impact of immigration to Canada|economic policy]] and [[Immigration to Canada#Immigration categories|family reunification]], and is aiming for between 240,000 and 265,000 new permanent residents in 2011, the same number of immigrants as in recent years.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/canada/montreal/story/2010/11/02/con-immigration.html|title=Canada's 2011 immigration level unchanged|date=November 2, 2010|publisher=CBC|accessdate=2010-12-12}}</ref> New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas like Toronto and Vancouver.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thestar.com/Canada2020/article/106702|title=When immigration goes awry|date=July 14, 2006|newspaper=Toronto Star|accessdate=2010-01-08}}</ref> Canada also accepts large numbers of [[refugee]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/department/media/releases/2010/2010-11-01a.asp|title=Government of Canada Tables 2011 Immigration Plan|publisher=Canada News Centre|accessdate=2010-12-12}}</ref> The country resettles over one in 10 of the world’s refugees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/media/nr/2010/nr20101021-6-eng.aspx|title=Canada's Generous Program for Refugee Resettlement Is Undermined by Human Smugglers Who Abuse Canada's Immigration System |publisher=Public Safety Canada|accessdate=2010-12-12}}</ref>

According to the 2001 census, 77.1 percent of Canadians identify as being Christians; of this, [[Catholicism|Catholics]] make up the largest group (43.6% of Canadians). The largest [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denomination is the [[United Church of Canada]] (9.5% of Canadians), followed by the [[Anglican Church of Canada|Anglicans]] (6.8%), [[Baptists]] (2.4%), [[Lutherans]] (2%), and other Christians (4.4%). About 16.5 percent of Canadians declare [[Irreligion|no religious affiliation]], and the remaining 6.3 percent are affiliated with non-Christian religions, the largest of which is [[Islam in Canada|Islam]] (2.0%), followed by [[Judaism]] (1.1%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/demo30a-eng.htm|title=Population by religion, by province and territory (2001 Census)|date=January 25, 2005|publisher=Statistics Canada|accessdate=2010-01-19}}</ref>

Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for [[Education in Canada|education]]. Each system is similar, while reflecting regional history, culture and geography. The mandatory school age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Council of Ministers of Education, Canada | title = Overview of Education in Canada | url= http://www.educationau-incanada.ca/index.aspx?action=educationsystem-systemeeducation&lang=eng | archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/5mYLss1b9 | archivedate= 2010-01-05 | accessdate=2009-10-20 }}</ref> contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.<ref name="cia" /> In 2002, 43 percent of Canadians aged 25 to 64 possessed a post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the rate of post-secondary education reached 51 percent.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Department of Finance Canada | title = Creating Opportunities for All Canadians | url= http://www.fin.gc.ca/ec2005/agenda/agc4-eng.asp| date = November 14, 2005 | accessdate=2006-05-22}}</ref>
{{Largest Metropolitan Areas of Canada}}
{{-}}

===Language===
[[File:Bilinguisme au Canada-fr.svg|left|thumb|alt=Map of Canada showing distribution of English-speaking, French-speaking and bilingual residents|In 2006, about 17.4% of the population were bilingual, as they were able to conduct a conversation in both official languages.'''<small>{{Legend|#FFE400|English – 57.8%}}{{Legend|#D8A820|English and French (Bilingual) – 17.4% }}{{Legend|#B07400|French – 22.1%}}{{Legend|#F5F5DC|Sparsely populated area ( '''&lt;''' 0.4 persons per km<sup>2</sup>)}}</small>''']]
Canada's two official languages are English and French. [[Official bilingualism in Canada|Official bilingualism]] is defined in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the [[Official Languages Act (Canada)|Official Languages Act]], and ''Official Language Regulations''; it is applied by the [[Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages|Commissioner of Official Languages]]. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French, and official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.<ref>{{cite web|title=Official Languages and You|publisher=Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages|date=June 16, 2009|url=http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/html/faq1_e.php|accessdate=2011-09-10}}</ref>

English and French are the [[first language]]s of 59.7 and 23.2 percent of the population respectively. Approximately 98 percent of Canadians speak English or French: 57.8% speak English only, 22.1% speak French only, and 17.4% speak both.<ref name="Highlights">{{cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-555/p1-eng.cfm|title=2006 Census: The Evolving Linguistic Portrait, 2006 Census: Highlights|publisher=Statistics Canada|year=2006 (2010)|accessdate=2010-10-12}}</ref> English and French Official Language Communities, defined by First Official Language Spoken, constitute 73.0 and 23.6 percent of the population respectively.<ref>{{cite web |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo15-eng.htm |title=Population by knowledge of official language, by province and territory|date=January 27, 2005|accessdate=2009-10-20}}</ref>

The [[Charter of the French Language]] makes French the official language in Quebec.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bourhis|first=Richard Y|coauthors=Montaruli, Elisa; Amiot, Catherine E|title=Language planning and French-English bilingual communication: Montreal field studies from 1977 to 1997|journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language|date=May 2007|issue=185|pages=187–224|doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.031}}</ref> Although more than 85 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial [[Francophone]] populations in [[Franco-Ontarian|Ontario]], [[Franco-Albertan|Alberta]], and southern [[Franco-Manitoban|Manitoba]]; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/diversity-franco-diversite-eng.htm|title=The Diversity of the Canadian Francophonie|last=Lachapelle|first=R|date=March 2009|publisher=Statistics Canada|accessdate=2009-09-24}}</ref> New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population. There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hayday|first=Matthew|title=Bilingual Today, United Tomorrow: Official Languages in Education and Canadian Federalism|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2005|page=49|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3D6LPBGT59kC&pg=PA49|isbn=0773529608}}</ref>

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status but is not fully co-official.<ref>{{cite book|last=Heller|first=Monica|title=Crosswords : language, education and ethnicity in French Ontario|year=2003|publisher=Mouton de Gruyter|isbn=9783110176872|pages=72, 74}}</ref> There are 11 [[Languages of Canada#Aboriginal languages|Aboriginal language groups]], made up of more than 65 distinct dialects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-589-x/4067801-eng.htm|title=Aboriginal languages|work=Statistics Canada|accessdate=2009-10-05}}</ref> Of these, only Cree, [[Inuit language|Inuktitut]] and [[Ojibwe language|Ojibway]] have a large enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable to survive in the long term.<ref>{{Cite book
 | last = Gordon
 | first = Raymond G Jr.
 | title = Ethnologue: Languages of the world
 | publisher = SIL International
 | year = 2005
 | edition = 15th
 | format=Web Version online by SIL International
 | url = http://www.ethnologue.com/web.asp
 | isbn=155671159X
 | accessdate=2009-10-06
 | ref = harv
}}
</ref> Several aboriginal languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fettes|first=Mark|coauthors= Norton, Ruth|title=Aboriginal education: fulfilling the promise|editor=Castellano, Marlene Brant; Davis, Lynne; Lahache, Louise|publisher=UBC Press|year=2001|page=39|chapter=Voices of Winter: Aboriginal Languages and Public Policy in Canada|isbn=0774807830}}</ref> Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and one of three official languages in the territory.<ref>{{cite book|last=Russell|first=Peter H|title=Unfinished constitutional business?: rethinking indigenous self-determination|editor=Hocking, Barbara|publisher=Aboriginal Studies Press|year=2005|page=180|chapter=Indigineous Self-Determination: Is Canada as Good as it Gets?|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mxreMX_cf4EC&pg=PA180|isbn=0855754664}}</ref>

Over six million people in Canada list a non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the most common non-official first languages include [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (mainly [[Yue Chinese|Cantonese]]; 1,012,065 first-language speakers), [[Italian language|Italian]] (455,040), [[German language|German]] (450,570), [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (367,505) and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (345,345).<ref>{{cite web |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/demo11a-eng.htm |title=Population by mother tongue, by province and territory|date=January 27, 2005|accessdate=2010-01-19}}</ref> English and French are the languages most spoken at home by 68.3 percent and 22.3 percent of the population respectively.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=55535&APATH=3&GID=431515&METH=1&PTYPE=55440&THEME=41&FOCUS=0&AID=0&PLACENAME=0&PROVINCE=0&SEARCH=0&GC=0&GK=0&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&FL=0&RL=0&FREE=0|title= First Official Language Spoken (7) and Sex (3) for Population, for Canada, Provinces, Territories and Census Metropolitan Areas 1, 2001 Census&nbsp;– 20% Sample Data| publisher=Statistics Canada| accessdate=2007-03-23}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Canada}}
{{see also|Canadian art|Music of Canada|Sports in Canada|National symbols of Canada}}
Canada has a diverse makeup of nationalities and cultures, and has constitutional protection for policies that promote [[multiculturalism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/prb0920-e.pdf|title=Canadian Multiculturalism|publisher=Library of Parliament|date=September 15, 2009|accessdate=2011-09-10|pages=1–7}}</ref> In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many French-speaking commentators speak of a [[culture of Quebec]] as distinguished from English Canadian culture;<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NtvKidOH9pgC&pg=PA61|page=61|title=Political culture and constitutionalism: a comparative approach|first1=Daniel P|last1=Franklin|first2=Michael J|last2=Baun|publisher=Sharpe|year=1995|isbn=1563244160}}</ref> however, as a whole Canada is a [[cultural mosaic]] – a collection of several regional, aboriginal, and ethnic subcultures.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Garcea|first=Joseph|coauthors=Kirova, Anna; Wong, Lloyd|title=Multiculturalism Discourses in Canada|journal=Canadian Ethnic Studies|date=January 2009|volume=40|issue=1|pages=1–10|doi=10.1353/ces.0.0069}}</ref> Government policies such as [[Health care in Canada|publicly-funded health care]], [[Income taxes in Canada|higher taxation]] to [[Canadian federal budget|distribute wealth]], outlawing [[Capital punishment in Canada|capital punishment]], strong efforts to eliminate [[poverty in Canada|poverty]], an emphasis on multiculturalism, stricter [[Gun politics in Canada|gun control]], and legalization of [[Same-sex marriage in Canada|same-sex marriage]] are social indicators of how Canada's political and cultural evolution differs from that of the United States.<ref>{{cite book
|first1 =Darrell | last1 =Bricker |first2= John |last2 =Wright
|title =What Canadians think about almost everything
|publisher =Doubleday Canada
|year =2005
|isbn =0385659857
|pages=8–23}}</ref>
[[File:Raven-and-the-first-men.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bill Reid]]'s sculpture ''Raven and The First Men''. The Raven is a figure common to many mythologies in aboriginal culture.]]
Historically Canada has been influenced by [[British culture|British]], [[French culture|French]], and aboriginal cultures and traditions. Through their culture, language, [[Native American art|art]] and [[First Nations music|music]], aboriginals continue to influence the [[Canadian identity]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GkAuYRVjlE8C&pg=PA3|pages=3–6|title=Aboriginal peoples of Canada: a short introduction|first=Paul R|last= Magocsi|publisher= University of Toronto Press|year=2002|isbn=0802036309}}</ref> Many Canadians value multiculturalism and see Canada as being inherently multicultural.<ref name="bickerton" />  American media and entertainment are popular, if not dominant, in English Canada; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the United States and worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |first=John D |last=Blackwell |url=http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/blackwell.html#culture |title=Culture High and Low |year=2005 |accessdate=2006-03-15 |publisher=International Council for Canadian Studies World Wide Web Service}}</ref> Many cultural products are marketed toward a unified "North American" or global market. The creation and preservation of distinctly Canadian culture are supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] (CBC), the [[National Film Board of Canada]], and the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]].<ref>{{cite web |publisher=National Film Board of Canada |url=http://www.onf.ca/medias/download/documents/pdf/NFB_STRATEGIC_PLAN.pdf |title=Mandate of the National Film Board |year=2005|accessdate=2009-10-20}}</ref>

[[File:Jackpine.jpeg|thumb|alt=Oil on canvas painting of a tree dominating its rocky landscape during a sunset.|''[[Jack Pine (painting)|The Jack Pine]]'', by [[Tom Thomson]], 1916; oil on canvas, in the collection of the [[National Gallery of Canada]]]]

Canadian visual art has been dominated by [[Tom Thomson]]&nbsp;– Canada's most famous painter&nbsp;– and by the [[Group of Seven (artists)|Group of Seven]]. Thomson's brief career painting Canadian landscapes spanned just a decade up to his death in 1917 at age 39.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Brock|first=Richard|title=Envoicing Silent Objects: Art and Literature at the Site of the Canadian Landscape|journal=Canadian Journal of Environmental Education|year=2008|volume=13|issue=2|pages=50–61}}</ref> The Group were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists&nbsp;– [[Lawren Harris]], [[A. Y. Jackson]], [[Arthur Lismer]], [[J. E. H. MacDonald]], and [[Frederick Varley]]&nbsp;– were responsible for articulating the Group's ideas. They were joined briefly by [[Frank Johnston (artist)|Frank Johnston]], and by commercial artist [[Franklin Carmichael]]. [[A. J. Casson]] became part of the Group in 1926.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hill|first=Charles C|title=The Group of Seven&nbsp;– Art for a Nation|publisher=National Gallery of Canada|year=1995|pages=15–21, 195|isbn=077106716X}}</ref> Associated with the Group was another prominent Canadian artist, [[Emily Carr]], known for her landscapes and portrayals of the [[indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Newlands|first=Anne|title=Emily Carr|publisher=Firefly Books|year=1996|pages=8–9|isbn=1552090469}}</ref>

The Canadian music industry has produced internationally renowned [[List of Canadian composers|composers]], [[List of Canadian musicians|musicians]] and [[List of bands from Canada|ensembles]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vtDhVXAkpxcC&pg=PA95|title=The cultural industries in Canada: problems, policies and prospects|first= Michael |last=Dorland|page=95|publisher=J. Lorimer|year=1996|isbn=1550284940}}</ref> Canada's music broadcasting is regulated by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). The [[Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences]] administers Canada's music industry awards, the [[Juno Award]]s, which commenced in 1970.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=IxVuSFLo8fAC&pg=PA127|page=127|title=Canadian content, culture and the quest for nationhood|first=Ryan |last=Edwardson|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2008|isbn=9780802097590}}</ref> The national anthem of Canada ''[[O Canada]]'' adopted in 1980, was originally commissioned by the [[Lieutenant Governor of Quebec]], the Honourable [[Théodore Robitaille]], for the 1880 [[Fête nationale du Québec|St. Jean-Baptiste Day]] ceremony.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=U1ARTU0002611|title='O Canada' |publisher=Historica-Dominion |accessdate=2009-10-28 }}</ref> [[Calixa Lavallée]] wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir [[Adolphe-Basile Routhier]]. The text was originally only in French, before it was translated to English in 1906.<ref>{{cite web
 |title=Hymne national du Canada
 |publisher=Canadian Heritage
 |date=June 23, 2008
 |url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/anthem-fra.cfm
 |accessdate=2008-06-26}}
</ref>

[[File:Canada2010WinterOlympicsOTcelebration.jpg|left|thumb|alt=Hockey players and fans celebrating|A scene at the [[2010 Winter Olympics]] in Vancouver seconds after [[Canada men's national ice hockey team|Team Canada]] won gold in men's [[ice hockey]]]]

Canada's official national sports are [[ice hockey]] and [[lacrosse]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Wieting|first=Stephen G|title=Sport and memory in North America|publisher=Frank Cass|year=2001|page=4|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dvWqyW9lmXsC&pg=PA4|isbn=0714682055}}</ref> Hockey is a [[national sport|national pastime]] and the most popular spectator sport in the country. It is also the sport most played by Canadians, with 1.65&nbsp;million participants in 2004. Seven of Canada's eight largest metropolitan areas – Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary, Edmonton and Winnipeg – have franchises in the [[National Hockey League]] (NHL), and there are more Canadian players in the NHL than from all other countries combined. Other popular spectator sports include [[curling]] and [[Canadian football|football]]; the latter is played professionally in the [[Canadian Football League]] (CFL). [[Golf]], [[baseball]], [[skiing]], [[Soccer in Canada|soccer]], [[cricket]], [[volleyball]], and [[basketball]] are widely played at youth and amateur levels, but professional leagues and franchises are not widespread.<ref name = "sports">{{cite web | author = [[Conference Board of Canada]] | year = 2004 | month = December | url = http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/sc/pubs/socio-eco/tab2_tab_e.cfm | title = Survey: Most Popular Sports, by Type of Participation, Adult Population | publisher = Sport Canada | work = Strengthening Canada: The Socio-economic Benefits of Sport Participation in Canada – Report August 2005 | accessdate=2006-07-01}}</ref>

Canada has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the [[1976 Summer Olympics]] in Montreal, the [[1988 Winter Olympics]] in Calgary, and the [[2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup]]. Canada was the host nation for the [[2010 Winter Olympics]] in [[Vancouver]] and [[Whistler, British Columbia]].<ref>{{cite web | publisher =The Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games | url = http://www.vancouver2010.com/ | title = Vancouver 2010 | year = 2009 | accessdate=2009-10-20}}</ref>

Canada's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Aboriginal sources. The use of the [[maple leaf]] as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's [[Flag of Canada|current]] and [[Canadian Red Ensign|previous flags]], on the [[penny (Canadian coin)|penny]], and on the [[Arms of Canada]].<ref name="symbol1">{{cite book | author=Canadian Heritage | title=Symbols of Canada | year=2002 | isbn=0660186152 | publisher=Canadian Government Publishing}}</ref> Other prominent symbols include the [[beaver]], [[Canada Goose]], [[Great Northern Loon|Common Loon]], the Crown, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police,<ref name="symbol1"/> and more recently, the [[totem pole]] and [[Inuksuk]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ruhl|first=Jeffrey|date=January 2008|title=Inukshuk Rising|journal=Canadian Journal of Globalization|volume=1|issue=1|pages=25–30}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
{{main|Bibliography of Canada}}
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{{refbegin}}
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
; History
* {{Cite book
|title =A brief history of Canada
|first = Roger E| last= Riendeau
|publisher = Facts on File
|year = 2007
|edition =2nd
|isbn = 9780816063352
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CFWy0EfzlX0C&pg=PP1
 }}
* {{Cite book
|title = Journeys: A History of Canada
|first1 =RD | last1 = Francis |first2 = Richard |last2 =Jones |first3 = Donald B |last3 =Smith
|publisher = Nelson Education
|year = 2009
|isbn = 9780176442446
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GbbZRIOKclsC&pg=PP1
 }}
* {{cite book |last = Taylor |first = Martin Brook|coauthor= Owram, Doug|year = 1994|title =Canadian History|volume=1 & 2|publisher= University of Toronto Press}} ISBN 0802050166, ISBN 0802028012
; Geography and climate
* {{Cite book
|title = Canadian Oxford World Atlas
|editor = Stanford, Quentin H
|edition = 6th
|publisher = Oxford University Press (Canada)
|isbn = 0195429281
|year = 2008
 }}
; Government and law
* {{cite book |last = Malcolmson |first = Patrick|edition=4th|coauthor= Myers, Richard|year =2009 |title =The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada |url =http://books.google.com/books?id=-jpXFH_ZhY8C&pg=PP1 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn= 9781442600478}}
* {{cite book |last = Morton|first =Frederick Lee |coauthor= |year =2002 |title =Law, politics, and the judicial process in Canada
 |url =http://books.google.com/books?id=dj_4_H35nmYC&pg=PP1 |publisher= Frederick Lee|isbn= 1552380467}}
{{Col-2}}
; Foreign relations and military
* {{cite book |last = Granatstein |first =JL |year =2004 |title =Canada's army: waging war and keeping the peace
 |url =http://books.google.com/books?id=jqxyhNcha3sC&pg=PP1 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn= 0802086969}}
; Economy
* {{cite book |work=Organización para la Cooperación y Desarrollo Económicos|year =2010 |title =Canada 2010 |url =http://books.google.com/books?id=tvLuZ2iQAqkC|publisher=OECD economic surveys |isbn=9789264083257}}
; Demography and statistics
* {{Cite book
|last = Statistics Canada
|title = Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967
|publisher = Federal Publications (Queen of Canada)
|year= 2008
|url=http://www65.statcan.gc.ca/acyb_r000-eng.htm
 }}
* {{Cite book
|last = Statistics Canada
|title = Canada Year Book
|publisher = Federal Publications (Queen of Canada)
|date= October 27, 2010
|id =Catalogue no 11-402-XPE
|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/11-402-x2010000-eng.htm
}}
; Culture
* {{cite book
|first = Paul R| last = Magocsi
|title =Encyclopedia of Canada's peoples
|publisher =Society of Ontario, University of Toronto Press
|year =1999
|isbn =0802029388
|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC
 }}
{{Col-end}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.gc.ca/ Official website of the Government of Canada]
* [http://www.gg.ca/ Official website of the Governor General of Canada]
* [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/canada.htm Canada at UCB Libraries GovPubs]
* [http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/blackwell.html Canadian Studies: A Guide to the Sources]
* [http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/canadiana/index-e.html Canadiana: The National Bibliography of Canada]

[[Category:Canada| ]]
[[Category:Countries]]