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| '''Programmable matter''' refers to [[matter]] which has the ability to change its physical properties (shape, density, moduli, optical properties, etc.) in a programmable fashion, based upon user input or autonomous sensing. Programmable matter is thus linked to the concept of a material which inherently has the ability to perform information processing.
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| == History ==
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| Programmable matter is a term originally coined in 1991 by Toffoli and Margolus to refer to an ensemble of fine-grained computing elements arranged in space {{harv|Toffoli|Margolus|1991}}. Their paper describes a computing [[Substrate (materials science)|substrate]] that is composed of fine-grained compute nodes distributed throughout space which communicate using only nearest neighbor interactions. In this
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| context, programmable [[matter]] refers to compute models similar to [[cellular automata]] and
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| [[Lattice Gas Automata]] {{harv|Rothman|Zaleski|1997}}. The [http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/im/cam8/ CAM-8] architecture is an example hardware realization of this model. This function is also known as "digital referenced areas" (DRA) in some forms of [[self-replicating machine]] science [http://www.geocities.com/charles_c_22191/temporarypreviewfile.html?1205202563050]
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| In the early 1990s there was a significant amount of work in reconfigurable modular robotics with a philosophy similar to programmable matter [http://www.geocities.com/charles_c_22191/temporarypreviewfile.html?1205202563050].
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| As [[semiconductor]] technology [[nanotechnology]] and self-replicating machine technology have advanced, the use of the term programmable matter has changed to reflect the fact that
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| it is possible to build an ensemble of elements which can be "[[program]]med" to change their physical properties in reality, not just in [[simulation]]. Thus, programmable matter has come to mean "any bulk substance which can be programmed to change its physical properties."
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| In the summer of 1998, in a discussion on artificial atoms and programmable matter, [[Wil McCarthy]] and G. Snyder coined the term "quantum wellstone" (or simply "wellstone") to describe this hypothetical but plausible form of
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| programmable matter. McCarthy has used the term in his fiction.
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| In 2002, [http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~seth Seth Goldstein] and [http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~tcm Todd Mowry] started the [[claytronics]] project at Carnegie Mellon University to investigate the underlying hardware and software mechanisms necessary to realize programmable matter.
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| In 2004, the DARPA Information Science and Technology group (ISAT) examined the potential of programmable matter. This resulted in the 2005-2006 study, "Realizing Programmable Matter" which laid out a multi-year program for the research and development of programmable matter.
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| In 2007, programmable matter was the subject of a [[DARPA]] [http://www.darpa.mil/dso/solicitations/baa07-21mod9.html research solicitation] and subsequent [http://www.darpa.mil/dso/thrusts/physci/newphys/program_matter/ program].
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| == Approaches to programmable matter ==
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| In one school of thought the programming could be external to the material and might be achieved by the "application of light, voltage, electric or magnetic fields, etc." {{harv|McCarthy|2006}}. For example, in this school of thought, a [[liquid crystal display]] is a form of programmable matter. A second school of thought is that the individual units of the ensemble can compute and the result of their computation is a change in the ensemble's physical properties. An example of this more ambitious form of programmable matter is [[claytronics]], where the units in the ensemble "compute" and the result is a change in the shape of the ensemble.
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| There are many proposed [[instantiation]]s of programmable matter. Scale
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| is one key differentiator between different forms of programmable
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| matter. At one end of the spectrum reconfigurable modular robotics
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| pursues a form of programmable matter where the individual units are
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| in the centimeter size range (e.g., [http://groups.csail.mit.edu/drl/research.html][http://www.robotics.upenn.edu/people/yim.html][http://www.mip.sdu.dk/~kaspers/research.php][http://www.geocities.com/charles_c_22191/temporarypreviewfile.html?1205202563050].
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| At the nanoscale end of the spectrum there are a tremendous number of
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| different bases for programmable matter, ranging from shape changing
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| molecules (e.g., [http://stoddart.chem.ucla.edu/]) to [[Quantum Dots|quantum dots]]. Quantum dots are in fact often referred to as artificial atoms. In the micrometer to sub-millimeter range examples include claytronics, [[MEMS]]-based units, cells created using [[synthetic biology]], and the [[utility fog]] concept.
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| == Examples of programmable matter ==
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| There are many conceptions of programmable matter, and thus many discrete avenues of research using the name. Below are some specific examples of programmable matter. (This needs to be filled out.)
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| === "Simple" programmable matter ===
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| These include materials that can change their properties based on some input, but do not have the ability to do complex computation by themselves.
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| *'''Complex fluids.''' The physical properties of several complex fluids can be modified by applying a current or voltage, as is the case with [[liquid crystals]].
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| *'''Metamaterials.''' [[Metamaterials]] are artificial [[composites]] that can be controlled to react in ways that do not occur in nature. One example developed by David Smith and then by John Pendry and David Schuri is of a material that can have its [[index of refraction]] tuned so that it can have a different index of refraction at different points in the material. If tuned properly this could result in an "invisibility cloak."
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| *'''Shape Changing Molecules.''' An active area of research is in molecules that can change their shape, as well as other properties, in response to external stimuli. These molecules can be used individually or en masse to form new kinds of materials. For example, [http://stoddart.chem.ucla.edu/ J Fraser Stoddart's] group at UCLA has been developing molecules that can change their electrical properties.
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| === Robotics-based approaches ===
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| *'''Reconfigurable modular robotics.''' [[Self-Reconfiguring Modular Robotics]] is a field of robotics in which a group of usually identical robots work together to dynamically form shapes suitable for each task. See {{harv|Yim|Shen|Salemi|Rus|2007|pp=43-52}} for an overview of recent work and challenges.
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| *'''Claytronics.''' [[Claytronics]] is an emerging field of [[engineering]] concerning reconfigurable [[nanoscale]] [[robot]]s ('claytronic [[atoms]]', or ''catoms'') designed to form much larger scale [[machines]] or mechanisms. The catoms will be sub-millimeter computers that will eventually have the ability to move around, communicate with other computers, change color, and [[electrostatic]]ally connect to other catoms to form different shapes.
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| *'''Cellular automata.''' [[Cellular automata]] are a useful concept to abstract some of the concepts of discrete units interacting to give a desired overall behavior.
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| === Quantum wells ===
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| *[[Quantum well]]s can hold one or more electrons. Those electrons behave like [[artificial atom]]s which, like real atoms, can form [[covalent bonds]]. Because of their larger sizes, other properties are widely different.
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| === Synthetic biology ===
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| *[[Synthetic biology]] is a field that aims to engineer cells with "novel biological functions." Such cells are usually used to create larger systems (e.g., biofilms) which can be "programmed" utilizing synthetic gene networks such as [[James Collins (Boston University)|genetic toggle switches]], to change their color, shape, etc.
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| == Programmable matter in fiction ==
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| Programmable matter is still, for the most part, a fantastic vision
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| for the future. The ideas behind it are explored in many works of
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| science fiction. For example (This list is very incomplete):
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| * The [[T-1000]] from ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day|Terminator 2]]'' fits the definition of programmable matter, although it is not described that way in the film.
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| * It is called "wellstone" in many of Wil McCarthy's books and stories, e.g., {{cite book|last=McCarthy|first=Wil|title=[[The Wellstone (novel)|The Wellstone]]|year=2003}}
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| * It is called "Trillions" in the children's book "''Trillions''", by Nicholas Fisk (1973), ISBN-10: 0394926013
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| * It is called "reality graphics" in {{cite book|last=Vinge|first=Vernor|title=A Fire Upon the Deep|year=1992}}
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| * {{cite book|last=Brin|first=David|title=Kiln people|year=2002}}
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| * It is called "Computronium" in {{cite book|last=Stross|first=Charles|title=Accelerando|year=2005}}
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| * Programmable Silicon is used to quickly erect buildings in Peter F Hamilton's [[Night's Dawn Trilogy]]
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| * The [[Replicator (Stargate)|Replicators]] from the [[Stargate SG-1|Stargate universe]] are based on this technology.
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| * In the Pendragon Adventure series, "Forge" is a programmable matter device created by Mark Dimond and Andy Mitchell.
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| == References ==
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| * {{citation
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| | title=Programmable Matter
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| | journal=IEEE Computer
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| | last=Goldstein
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| | first=Seth Copen
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| | last2=Campbell
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| | first2=Jason
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| | last3 = Mowry
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| | first3 = Todd C.
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| | volume=38
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| | issue=6
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| | pages=99–101
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| | url=http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1069668
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| | date = June, 2005
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| | year = 2005
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| }}
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| * {{citation
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| | last = McCarthy
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| | first = Wil
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| | title = Programmable Matter FAQ
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| | url = http://www.programmablematter.com/FAQ.html#A1
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| | date = 2006
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| | year = 2006
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| }}
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| * {{citation
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| | last = McCarthy
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| | first = Wil
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| | title = Hacking Matter: Levitating Chairs, Quantum Mirages, and the Infinite Weirdness of Programmable Atoms
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| | isbn = 0-465-04428-X
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| | date = 2003
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| | year = 2003
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| }}
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| * {{citation
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| | last=Rothman
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| | first=D.H.
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| | last2=Zaleski
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| | first2 = S.
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| | date=1997
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| | title=Lattice Gas Cellular Automata
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| | publisher=Cambridge University Press
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| | url=http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521607604
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| | year = 1997
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| }}
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| * {{citation
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| | last = Toffoli
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| | first = Tommaso
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| | last2 = Margolus
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| | first2 = Norman
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| | title = Programmable matter: concepts and realization
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| | journal = Physica D
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| | volume = 47
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| | pages = 263–272
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| | url = http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=104699.104736
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| | date = 1991
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| | year = 1991
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| }}
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| * {{citation
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| | url = http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=4141032
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| | title = Modular Self-Reconfigurable Robot Systems
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| | journal = IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine
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| | date = March 2007
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| | volume = 14
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| | issue = 1
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| | last = Yim
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| | first = Mark
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| | last2 = Shen
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| | first2 = Wei-Min
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| | last3 = Salemi
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| | first3 = Behnam
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| | last4 = Rus
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| | first4 = Daniela
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| | last5 = Moll
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| | first5 = Mark
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| | last6 = Lipson
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| | first6 = Hod
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| | last7 = Klavins
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| | first7 = Eric
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| | last8 = Chirikjian
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| | first8 = Gregory
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| | year = 2007
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| }}
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| == External links ==
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| * {{cite web|title=Boston University's Programmable Matter Group|url=http://pm.bu.edu}}
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| * {{cite web|title=Synthetic Biology at Boston University|url=http://www.bu.edu/abl}}
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| * {{cite web|title=Claytronics Project at Carnegie Mellon University|url=http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~claytronics}}
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| * {{cite web
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| |title=Universally Programmable Intelligent Matter Project
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| |url=http://www.cs.utk.edu/~mclennan/UPIM/index.html
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| }}
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| [[Category:Smart materials| ]]
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